The main source of progesterone in camels is the CL. If mating and subsequent ovulation does not occur periph- eral concentrations of progesterone remain low (<1 ng/ml) throughout the whole breeding season. Following mating concentrations of progesterone remain low for the first 3–4 days after ovulation, then increase steadily to peak values around 3.0 ng/ml by Day 8 or 9, before decreasing sharply on Day 10 or 11, in the non-pregnant animal, to reach basal values of 1 ng/ml by Days 11 or 12 (Fig. 4).Global
camels is 13 months
A long calving interval, protracted post-partum anoestrum and a limited breeding season are among the major factors contributing to low reproductive performance in camels
four species of New World camelids (alpaca, Ilama, guanaco and vicuña)
Presentation on theme: “Reproduction in Camels”— Presentation transcript:
1Reproduction in CamelsByAbdulwahhab Al-JubooriB.V.M, M.Sc, Ph.D., Veterinary ConsultantSecretary General of ISOCARDResearch and Development DivisionAbu Dhabi Food Control Authority, UAE
2 IntroductionReproductive Anatomy of Male and Female CamelReproductive Physiology of Male and Female CamelCommon Reproductive Disorders
3 **Introduction Camels known as the “SHIP OF THE DESERT”**Camel (Camelus dromedarius) is an important multipurpose livestock species uniquely adapted to harsh arid and semi-arid areas that can be used for meat, milk, wool, and hide production and transportation.Now it is has become a source of entertainment, celebration and competition.There are 24,246,291 million one-humped camels in the world with 80% of them in Africa and the highest population in Somalia (7 million) and Sudan (4.25 million). In Asia about 70% of dromedaries are found in India and Pakistan.The value of the camel has been realized recently in two major areas, firstly as a good source for human food in areas where traditional livestock would not thrive, secondly in the areas of racing sport and beauty show. A good racing or beauty camel in the Gulf area could fetch as three to four million dollars.
4 IntroductionThe reproductive efficiency of camels under natural conditions is generally regarded to be low. This probably due toShort breeding season,Longer prepubertal period,Long gestation period of 13 months,Delayed puberty,Prolonged (8–10 months) period of lactation,Poor pastoral management systems,Inadequate nutrition andThe lack of use of assisted reproductive techniques such as embryo transfer and artificial insemination .Camel is a seasonal breeder and their reproduction is different as compared to other livestock as both male and female come into heat during the breeding season.
5Reproduction Anatomy in Male CamelsScrotum and Testes :The scrotum is located in the perineal region.The scrotal skin tends to be smooth during the breeding season and becomes thicker during the period of sexual inactivity because of decreased testicular size.The testes are ovoid in shape and are usually descended at birth but are very small.Its vary in length from cm and weigh between g each.They become enlarged and protrude when the male camels are sexually active in the rutting season.The right testicle is often slightly smaller than the left one.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
6Reproduction Anatomy in Male CamelsSeminiferous tubules:The outer diameter is between 113 – 250 mm in diameter and gets significantly smaller during the non-rutting season. The estimated production of spermatozoa is 8.1 x 106 sperm cells per day at the end of Spring and drops to 4.2 x 106 sperm cells per day at the end of the Summer.The number of spermatozoa per gram of testicular tissue varies from about 27 – 30 million in calm males to 36 – 47 million during rut.Epididymis:The epididymis is composed of three distinct parts: the head, body and tail. It is located along the dorsal border of the testis with the head curving around the cranial pole of the testis.The tail is round and well-protruded about cm above the respective extremity of the testis.Ductus deferens:The ductus (or vas) deferens are very long measuring between cm in length and are enclosed within the spermatic cord.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
7Reproduction Anatomy in Male CamelsPrepuce and penis:The prepuce is pendulous, flattened from side to side and triangular structure that is facing back. Thus, urine is passing backward. It is formed by two layers, parietal and visceral. Between these two layer, three group of muscles. Due to the action of these muscles, the prepuce can move cranially and caudally during erection or urination. These muscles also control dilation and constriction of the preputial orifice.The penis is composed of fibroelastic tissue, having a prescrotal sigmoid flexure that is located in front of the scrotum but not behind as in bovine bull.The length of the penis ranges from cm and it is cylindrical in shape.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
8Reproduction Anatomy in Male CamelsA retractor penis muscle is present and attaches to the distal part of the sigmoid flexure which help in directing the penis forward during erection for copulation.The glans penis 8-12 cm long and ends in a cartilaginous process which directs the penis into the cervix of the female during copulation. The glans penis is curved along its vertical plane giving it a hook-shape with a definite neck between the glans and body of the penis.The cranial end of the penis is twisted and the terminal process is cartilaginous and directed to the left and dorsally in a T shape.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)Tibary and Anouassi 1997)Gahlot 2000
9Reproduction Anatomy in Male CamelsAccessory sex glands:The Prostate Gland: This is the largest and only palpable gland in the dromedary. It has two components, a compact and a diffuse part, the two forming an H shape which lies dorsal to the pelvic urethra. It averages, 3–7 × 5 cm and is dark yellow in color.The Bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s gland): There are two bulbourethral glands which are almond shaped structures that are located on either side of the terminal portions of the pelvic urethra. it measure about cm.Poll glands: Male camels have two tubulo-alveolar glands (poll glands) in the occipital region between the two ears on the back of the neck. In the period when the testosterone levels are high there is a copious secretion from the occipital gland. The secretion is dark brown and has an acrid smell. The main function of these secretions is making territory and attracting females.There are no seminal vesicles in the camels.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)Gahlot 2000
10Reproduction Anatomy in Male CamelsThe Ampulla: The initial part of the ductus deferens is small in diameter and very tortuous but it thickens and forms the ampulla as it approaches the pelvic urethra. It averages 18 cm in length withthe terminal part embedded in a deep groove located on the ventral surface of the corpus prostatae. It has been suggested that these glands may play the role of a sperm reserve before ejaculation.The Urethral Glands: These are located just behind the body of the prostate and extend to the level of the urethral bulb before opening into the urethral lumen via numerous ducts. These glands and the pelvic urethra are richly enervated; these nerves being responsible for the contraction of the muscle and expulsion of glandular secretion.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
11Reproduction Anatomy in Females CamelsThe Ovary:The ovaries are located about 36 cm from the opening of the vulva but are subject to great variations depending on the physiological stage. For example, during pregnancy they becomes more ventral and are pulled forward during the advancing stages thus making them very difficult to palpate.The left ovary is generally more cranio-ventral in position than the right ovary.Their general appearance and size varies according to the age and activity of the animal. In the prepubertal animals they have a smooth and glistening surface with several raised small vesicles (2 - 5 mm in diameter) throughout the surface which correspond to the follicles. In anoestrous and nulliparous females the ovaries are oval or circular, flattened laterally and have an irregular surface due to many small follicles. During the breeding season, mature follicles and current copora lutea (CL) project from the main contour of the ovary and give it a more lobular form.The measurements given for the ovary vary from cm in length, cm in width and cm in thickness and each ovary weighs between 3 - 4g in dromedaries. However, they increase in weight with increasing age, ovarian activity and during pregnancy, as during pregnancy they are bearing the CL.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
12Reproduction Anatomy in Females CamelsFollicles: Follicular activity is dominated by 4 types of follicles, namely: small growing follicles, mature follicles, regressing follicles or over-large, anovulatory follicles. As the follicular waves overlap with each other, several generations of follicles may be present at the same time. The small growing follicles are visible on the surface of the ovary as small slightly raised vesicles measuring between mm, whereas the mature pre-ovulatory follicle measures between 13 – 20 mm and is spherical, turgid, with a thin clear translucent wall and protrudes markedly from the ovarian surface.The appearance of regressing follicles depends on the stage of regression. At the start of regression the follicular wall becomes thick and opaque and the diameter decreases slowly until the follicle recedes into the ovary itself. Large anovulatory follicles are present in about 50% of non-mated females and their size and appearance can be highly variable.They vary in size from mm and may have a thin or thick, opaque wall and contain either serous or haemorrhages fluid with various amounts of fibrin.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
13Reproduction Anatomy in Females CamelsCorpus Luteum: The corpus luteum forms after ovulation, which occurs hours after mating. The ovulating follicle collapses at ovulation and then the follicular cavity fills with blood to form a corpus haemorrhagicum. Luteinization of the corpus haemorrhagicum occurs within days and gives rise to a corpus luteum. In the non-pregnant camel the CL measures mm in diameter and weighs g, but during pregnancy the size and weight increases to an average of mm and g respectively. Regression of the CL occurs between days after a sterile mating or just before parturition in the pregnant camel. The corpus albicans, originating from the regression of the CL of pregnancy is hard, white or grey in color and has no blood vessels on its surface. Corpora albicantia of different sizes (5 – 12 mm in diameter) can remain on the surface of the ovary of the female for a long time.Oviducts:The ?oviducts measure between cm in length. The isthmus is less coiled than the ampulla, and the fimbria lies within the bursa at a short distance from the ovary.Each oviduct opens into the uterine horn via a narrow orifice at the summit of a protuberant papilla which can be as much as mm in height. This papillae is very muscular and presents a sphincter muscle at its apex. The function of this is unknown but it is possible that it plays an important role in the selective transport of fertilized embryos.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
14Reproduction Anatomy in Females CamelsUterus:The uterus is bicornuate with the left horn being distinctly longer than the right. In nulliparous females the uterus is very small and can be found entirely within the pelvic cavity, whereas in mature non-pregnant females it is located in the abdominal cavity at the level of the 5th, 6th and 7th lumbar vertebra.The non-gravid uterus has a short body of only cm in length and the horns vary between cm (right) and cm (left).The two uterine horns diverge and taper anteriorly to form a T or Y shape with the uterine body of young or adult females, respectively .Tibary and Anouassi 1997)Tibary and Anouassi 1997)Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
15Reproduction Anatomy in Females CamelsThe Cervix:The cervix has 3 to 4 annular mucosal folds.The average length and diameter of the cervix during follicular activity is 5 and 6 cm, respectively, but decreases slightly during the period of ovarian inactivity.The Vagina:The length of the vagina is cm. It is lined with many longitudinal folds. The anterior vagina and the vestibulum are separated by a strong band of tissue (vestibulum sphincter muscle) and the hymen. This structure is very tight in nulliparous or young animals and can make manual examination of the vaginal cavity very difficult.The Vulva:The vulva opens directly below the anus and measures cm in length. The clitoris is very small and there is no distinct clitoral fossa. The urethra is also short and the opening of the urinary meatus is small. The hymen, or its remnants, marks the separation between the vulva and the vagina.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
16Reproduction Physiology in Male CamelsPubertyThe good nutritional and environmental conditions can assist early sexual development and breeding maturity in dromedary camels.The male camel matures at the age of years old.The breeding activity starts at 5 years of age.At 6 years of age they are in full reproductive vigourThe sexual activity can continues until 20 years of age, but this can vary due to breeds, genetics, nutrition and climatic changes.The male dromedary can mate with 20 to 50 females a season, when he is in good condition.In the rutting periods there was increased secretion of androgens (blood, urine and poll gland).
17Reproduction Physiology in Male CamelsSeasonalitySeasonality in the male is evidenced by changes in sexual behavior, morphology and function of the genital organs, as well as changes in endocrinological profiles.The breeding season is very variable but generally coincides with the period of low humidity, low temperature, and increased rainfall.In India late September to March,In Saharan and sub-Saharan regions October to MayIn the Middle East late October to late April.The onset of the rutting season can also be affected by the type of management and the individual male.Males that are loose in a herd tend to come into rut earlier and remain in season for a longer period than confined males.
18Reproduction Physiology in Male CamelsSexual cycle of the male camelThe male camel is a seasonal breeder.The male is normally docile and easily controlled but in the rutting season becomes so aggressive towards other male camels and humans. The in the rutting seasons shows:Loss of appetite and kicks.Protrudes the dulla out side of the mouth, and accompanied by frequent gargling sounds.Grinds its teeth and large quantities of foam can be seen in the oral cleft.
19Reproduction Physiology in Male CamelsThe hind legs are spread, and the tail is then beaten against the penis.Drops of urine are deposited on the tail and spread over the back.A dark foul smelling substance is secreted from the poll glands.
20Reproduction Physiology in Male CamelsMatingGenerally one stallion can cover 20 to 50 she camels in one season.The female sits down and keeps the external genitalia open thus allowing themale to copulate.The whole sexual act takes about 5-20 minutes and is accompanied by gurglingand frothing by male and bleating by the females.
21Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsPubertyNutrition, season of birth and breed of camel play an important role in the puberty.Female should be bred when they reach at least 70% of their adult body weight otherwise abortion rate is increased.In Arabian camels puberty is attained at 2 years of age but in practice females are not bred until they are 3 or 4 years of age.
22Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsSeasonalityCamel is seasonal polyestrous. However, with good nutrition and management, the female can cycle throughout the year.Arabian camels are best bred from November to March.Breeding of the camels outside of the season leads to high embryonic mortalityLH is higher during the breeding season, and the pituitary is more receptive to a GnRH injection.
23Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsEstrous BehaviourThe signs of estrous behaviour in the dromedary as being areMounting other females, restlessness, frequent urination,Swelling of the vulva with a very scanty mucus discharge,Receptivity to the male,Moves her tail up and down in rapid succession.Seeks male and stands besides male.The length of the oestrus cycle is normally 2–3 weeks.The actual heat lasts for 3–4 days.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
24Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsOvulation and Follicular Wave PatternThere is no spontaneous ovulation in the camel. Ovulation in the camel occurs after coitus. Ovulation occurs 30–48 hours following copulation.Mating with a normal or vasectomized male can produce ovulation.Manual stimulation of the cervix or intrauterine injection of water or the prostaglandin F analogue, cloprostenol, does not induce ovulation perhaps because these do not stimulate the release of sufficient LH from the pituitary to cause ovulation.The peak of LH release begins 2 hrs after copulation.Single, i.m. injection of either 20 μg ( m) of the GnRH analogue, Buserelin, or 3000 IU human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) can induce ovulation.The waves of follicular growth, maturation and atresia occur throughout the breeding season. Waves of growing (2-14 days; mean = 6 days), mature (5-19 days; mean = 8 days) and regression (7-10 days; mean = 8 days). When regression is complete another wave of follicular development starts and follow the same pattern.The growth rate of the follicles is mm/day.During the follicular phase, basal concentration of LH is 2.7± 1.2 ng/ml. By 4 hour after insemination, peak values of 6.9 ± 1.0 ng/ml, occur. During follicular phase peripheral plasma progesterone values are low (0.36 ± 0.28 ng/ml), but values increase to reach 1.73 ± 0.74 ng/ml at 3 days and 2.4 ± 0.86 ng/ml at 7 days after ovulation. The plasma estradiol-17-beta concentrations are 26 ± 9.0 pg/ml during the follicular phase and 30.8 ± 5.1 pg/ml when the follicle is maximum size.
25Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsPregnancyThe period of gestation is from 365 to 410 days (average 370 days).In camel, 99% of pregnancy occurs in left uterine horn.The incidence of twin ovulation is 14%. Twin births occur to an extent of only 0.4% when both the ovaries ovulate at the same oestrus.The posterior presentation predominates (54-66%) from early pregnancy, in camels.Fertilization occurs in the uterine tube and following successful mating, the CL develops rapidly to achieve its greatest weight and size at 60 days.Fertilization rate reported 82.3% by single mating, which could go up to 100% when animals bred daily for 3 days during estrus.
26Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsPregnancyThe embryo enters the uterus on day 6-7 after ovulation. On the 8th day it is expanded and hatched from its zona pellucida. On day 10, embryo elongated about 4 mm in length, on day 12 elongated to 20 mm in length.At 35 days of pregnancy, the fetus can be scanned and extremities can be seen.The heart beats registers earlier (22nd day).Major organs are differentiated during days of pregnancy.The amniotic fluid continues to rise steadily up to nearly 1 litter at parturition. Allantoic fluid increases to up to 6 litters at birth.There is no tendency in late pregnancy for the amnion to separate from the allantochorion as it may happen in the cows.
27Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsDiagnosis of pregnancy:Bedouin method:On the fourteenth day of post service, the she-camel will be brought to the bull-camel again. If she refuses to kneel and raise the tail and coil. This would be a strong indication of pregnancy. However, this response has been noted in unmated animals treated with exogenous progesterone and also in younger animals that may be alarmed by the male.Cervical mucous:Mucous during estrus is less viscous, become whitish and scanty in early pregnancy, and difficult to collect at 2 months of pregnancy.The pH varies between 6.74 and 7.36 during the follicular cycle in non-pregnant camels but it becomes more alkaline during early pregnancy, increasing from pH 7.05 after mating to as high as 8.2 at the beginning of the sixth week of gestation.Rectal palpation:This can be done in a sitting position or while standing in a stock.The membrane slip test, described in cattle pregnancy diagnosis, is not possible in Camelidae because of the diffuse type of placentation. Therefore positive pregnancy diagnosis can only be achieved if the CL and fetus are palpated.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
28Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsUltrasonography:Early detection of pregnancy occurs at 17 days when small amount of fluid is seen in the uterine lumen.The embryo can be seen at days.Heart beats is seen at days.Fetal parts are identified at 55 days.Progesterone assay:A level of serum progesterone of more than 1.0 ng/ml indicates the presence of CL. If this level is maintained between days, it is more likely that the animal is pregnant.Chemical test:Cuboni test and Barium chloride test.Biologic test:Detection of gonadotrophins and vaginal cytology
29Reproduction Physiology in Females CamelsParturitionIn camels the normal signs of parturition are: Swelling of vulva, Restlessness, Frequent urination, Camel finds a corner or a dark place and cleans it with the help of fore legs.Generally, parturition occurs in sitting position.The fore limbs of the young one appear first followed by the head. The duration of the labour is more pronounced.Navel cord generally breaks by itself when the camel licks her young and the placenta is expelled soon after parturition.Securing of animal as soon as the symptoms are seen is advisable.The labour pains continue for 5 to 10 hours. She camel remains in recumbent position for few minutes after parturition.Camel calf stands on its own within 6-8 hrs after birth.The female generally produces one calf at a time.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
30Improving Camel ReproductionKeeping the animals in good body conditionAdequate number of males should be kept in the herdAssessment of the male fertilityInduction of estrus and management of reproductionArtificial insemination in camelsEstrus detectionSynchronization of estrusEmbryo transfer technology
31Common Reproductive Disorders in Dromedary Camels
32Prevalence of common various reproductive disorders in camelsPrevalence rate (%)No. of camels found infectedNo. of camels examinedReproductive disorder17.4556321Repeat breeding12.4561490Uterine prolapse9.29603Dystocia9.0522243Early embryonic death9.0249543Abortion3.7117458Retained placenta3.813342Uterine torsion2.639Recto-vaginal fistula5.234654Udder edema5.8378Vaginal prolapse7.753394374TotalAl-Juboori and Mohammed Studies on common reproductive disorders in dromedary camels(Camelus dromedarius) in UAE under field conditions. Proceeding of the 3rd ISOCARD, Muscat, Oman.
33 DystociaDystocia should be suspected if the first stage or second stages of labor exceeds 6 and 2 hours, respectively.The animal also shows signs of distress with frequent alteration between standing and sitting positions, frequent rolling from side to side, and excessive straining.the most common causes of dystocia are the over fat of the dam, lack of exercise, improper breeding management, fetal malposition, lateral head deviation, feto-pelvic disproportion, vulval or cervical stenosis, uterine torsion and uterine inertia.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
34 Uterine prolapseThe following factors plays a major role in uterine prolapseLow serum calcium level,Lack of exercise,High intake of green fodder rich in estrogens,An increase in intraabdominal pressure,Excessive relaxation of its pelvic and perineal region due to old age,Selenium deficiency,Feed management,Secondary to dystocia,Manual removal of a retained placenta,Fetal oversize, fetal traction,Excessive obstetrical manipulation,Excessive use of oxytocin andInfection of the uterus following abortion, retained placenta and chronic metritis .Uterine prolapse occurs within the first six hourafter parturition, with an average time of two hour.
35 Retention of placentaIt is failure of placenta to be expelled within normal time (12 hours after birth).The chances of retained placenta increases following dystocia and cesarean section or observed after normal birth are due to uterine inertia.In our field observations, retained of placenta for more than 48 hours in hot and breeding seasons, respectively, may lead to developed endometritis.Generally, retention of fetal membranes is rare or uncommon in camels due to the diffuse type of placenta, although some cases are said to be fatal.
36 Uterine torsionIt is rotation (clockwise or anti clockwise) or displacement of the uterus along its longitudinal axis during pregnancy as determined by the attending clinician through vaginal palpation, rectal palpation, or both.The highest prevalence was recorded in the 5th lactation.The possible factors contributing to it may beExcessive fetal weight,Loosing of the reproductive organ at older ages andIncreased fetal movements that occur during 1st-stage labor in response to the contraction of the myometrium.The animals show off fed, congested mucous membrane, tachycardia, and abdominal discomfort including sitting and rising up and sometimes kicking at the belly and rolling.Most cases of uterine torsion were to the right side (clockwise) and were managed surgically by caesarian section.
37Recto-vaginal fistulaRecto-vaginal fistula due to rupture of the dorsal wall of the vagina with the ventral portion of the terminal rectum.The condition is not very frequent.Out of the 458 camels examined during the present study, 9 camels (2.63%) had recto-vaginal fistula.The present cases were presented with the history of improper handling of fetus during parturition followed by passage of faeces through vagina and anus.improper handling of fetus, pressure of the fetal forelimb, forceful traction of the fetus during parturition, rapid vaginal delivery of the fetus without sufficient preparation of the vulva and vestibular area and complication of fetotomy were the common causes.
38 Vaginal prolapseMost cases occurred in the 4th to 5th pregnancy, at the end of gestation.The prolapse of vagina can occur during the first half of pregnancy or even in non pregnant animals; however, the condition is more common during the last 3 months of pregnancy.The cause of vaginal prolapse in camel, such asHormonal/metabolic imbalances,Overfat/overthin body condition,Bulky feeds,Older females,Lack of exercise,Chronic irritation of the vaginal wall,Dystocia in previous pregnancies,Increased abdominal pressure andFetal burden.The prolapse can be very little or can be big as up to cervix and visible only in the recumbent female. However, in advanced or old standing cases the condition persists even in the standing position.
39 AbortionAbortion in camels was reported to be associated with various pathological conditions such as brucellosis, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis, campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis.Most the aborted cases occurred during the last trimester of pregnancy.Feeding of the pregnant camels large quantities of green fodder (alfalfa and fescue) during the trimester of pregnancy may be responsible for abortion in camels.Other less causes of abortion in camels include overworked, twining; hemorrhagic disease, equine rhinitis A virus, camel pox, endotoxin, excitement, malnutrition, medication and over exertion.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
40 **Early embryonic death This phenomena is well known to herdsman.**This condition is important constraints hindering reproductive performances of camels, but difficulty to contain the problem due to their multicausal factors.The reasons for the early embryonic death in camels were due to uterine infections, failure of corpus luteum to be maintained, failure of conceptus to develop because of bad uterine environment and abnormalities of corpus luteum function.Tibary and Anouassi 1997)
41Repeat breeding syndromeA “repeat breeder syndrome” is generally defined as any camel that failed to conceive after at least three regular spaced services, with no clinical abnormalities and associated with true estrus (heat).Repeat breeding is a substantial problem in camels breeding leading to large economic loss for the camel breeders due to increased calving interval and increased culling rates.Improper management (Inadequate estrous detection, inadequate semen quality, breeding during hot season, excessive use of male and aged females), Failure of ovulation, and Genital tract infections were the main causes of repeat breeding in camels.
44 ReferencesAbdulwahhab, Yas Camels: Diseases & Treatment. First Edition. Amrit Advertising, UAE, ISBN – 9948 – 03 – 059 – 1Al-Ani, F Camels: Management and Diseases. First Edition. Dar Ammar Book Publisher.Bravo, B.; Skidmore, J. and Zhao, X Reproductive aspects and storage of semen in Camelidae. Animal Reproduction Science 62, 173–193FAO Corporate Document Repository Camels and camel milk. Agricultural and Consumer Protection.FAO Corporate Document Repository A manual for primary animal health care worker. Agricultural and Consumer Protection.Gahlot, T.K Selected Topics On CAMELIDS . 1st Edn. .Khanvilkar, A.; Samant, S. and Ambore,B Reproduction in Camel. Veterinary World, Vol.2(2): 72-73Manefield, G. and Tinson, A Camels, a Compendium. University of Sydney Post Graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science, Sydney, Australia.Marai1, I; Zeidan, A.; Abdel-Samee, A.; Abizaid, A. Fadiel, A. (2009). Camel’s reproductive and physiological performance trails as affect by environmental conditions. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 10:Mukasa-Mugerwa The camel (Camelus dromedarius). A bibliographical review. International Livestock Center for Africa.
45 ReferencesSkidmore, J Reproduction in dromedary camels: an update. Anim. Reprod., v.2, n.3, p , Jul./Sept.Skidmore, J Reproductive Physiology in Male and Female Camels. Vets- Net.ComSkidmore J.A. and Adams G.P In: Recent Advances in Camelid Reproduction, Pregnancy Diagnosis in Camels (17 June 2000). Publisher: International Veterinary Information Service (Zafar, I. and Saifuddin, J The Camel and its Diseases. Al Bayan Press. Printing and Publishing Est.
Cryptosporidium
** Caprine Arthritis-Encephalitis (CAE) and Ovine Progressive Pneumonia (OPP) **
Caprine Caseaous Lymphadenitis
Ovine Section
Border disease: aslo calledas “hairy shaker dis”. Caused by a pestivirus that is related to BVD and classic swine fever viruses.
**FUSOBACTERIUM NECROPHORUM -**INFECTION OF THE BUCCAL CAVITY:
causes a necrotic stomatitis in growing lambs. The lesions are due to infection of cuts in the buccal cavity with F. necrophorum.
Rx: Treatment is with daily procaine penicillin (44,000 iu/kg i/m) for at least seven consecutive days.
Actinobacillosis: uncommon cause of multiple abscesses affecting the subcutaneous areas of the face. The abscesses fistulate to the skin surface and, much less commonly, to the oropharynx, and discharge a viscous yellow/green pus.
DDx: Unlike CLA, the lesions arein the skin rather than the parotid or submandibular lymph node.
Rx: Treatment is with daily procaine penicillin (44,000 iu/kg i/m) for at least seven consecutive days.
Acidosis/Grain Overload: sudden unaccustomed ingestion of large quantities of carbohydrate-rich feeds, typically grain or concentrates
Too rapid introduction on to a diet of ad libitum concentrates may result in acidosis.
The smaller the particle size (e.g. following milling) the more quickly fermentation occurs and the more severe the clinical signs for a given amount ingested by the sheep. Mountain breeds such as the Scottish Blackface (243) are more susceptible to acidosis than other breeds.
Pathophysiology
The sudden and unaccustomed ingestion of large quantities of carbohydrate-rich feeds results in a fall in rumen pH, which kills many resident bacteria and protozoa. Lactobacillus species multiply rapidly with the production of large amounts of lactic acid, which further reduces rumen pH. There is a marked increase in rumen liquor osmolality, with fluid being drawn in from the extracellular space and causing dehydration.
Lactate is absorbed into the circulation, leading to the development of a metabolic acidosis. This metabolic crisis is further compounded by toxin absorption through the compromised rumen mucosa. Chronic sequelae of rumen acidosis include fungal rumenitis and, occasionally, liver abscessation but the latter condition is less common than in cattle. Laminitis is uncommon in sheep following grain overload.
Signs:
Apathetic, depressed, anorexic, rolling, ataxic, Bruxism, abdomen distended, reumen static, no auscultation of ruminal motility, succussion reveals tinkling sounds due to the accumulation of fluid and gas within the rumen. Initially, the rectal temperature may be increased but it falls to subnormal values as the toxaemia progresses. The mucous membranes are congested and there may be enophthalmos and an increased skin tent-up duration of up to five seconds due to moderate/severe dehydration. There may be no diarrhoea for the first 12–24 hours after carbohydrate ingestion; thereafter, there is profuse fetid diarrhoea, which may contain whole grains (244). The most severely affected sheep become recumbent, dysnpea, tachypnea, tachycardia,
Sheep that recover have a protracted convalescence and occasionally show signs of lameness, associated with laminitis, affecting all four feet.
Differential diagnoses
• Differential diagnoses for profound toxaemia in weaned lambs include systemic pasteurellosis, clostridial disease, especially pulpy kidney disease and black disease, and abdominal catastrophes such as torsion of the small intestine or caecum.
• Redgut should also be considered but it is less commonly associated with grain feeding.
• Polioencephalomalacia and sulphur toxicity may cause initial depression and isolation.
• Subacute fasciolosis can present with recumbency, weakness, anterior abdominal pain and abdominal distension associated with peritonitis and an inflammatory exudate.
**Treatment of Acidosis in sheep: **IV normal saline to Rx dehydration, Mag. hydrooxide, IV sod bicarbonate (10mmol over 2-3 hrs), In practice, 16 g of sodium bicarbonate = 200 mmol of bicarbonate; therefore, an 80 kg pedigree Suffolk sheep estimated to be 7% dehydrated would require: Estimated base deficit × dehydrated body weight × extracellular fluid volume (i.e. 10 × 74 × 0.3) = 222 mmol of bicarbonate.
Therefore, 16 g of sodium bicarbonate would approximate a 10 mmol/l base deficit for a mature Suffolk sheep (8 g for a 40 kg fattening lamb).
Some clinicians elect to inject thiamine (vitamin B1) intravenously rather than a multivitamin injection.
Penicillin injections are given daily for up to 10 days to counter potential bacteraemia(rumenal lactobacilli)
Stop or reduce conc. feeding, Good quality hay should be provided to stimulate rumen function. always adop gradual feed change method.
Sheep Rumen sounds:
The flank is then firmly pressed to contact the dorsal sac of the rumen; any gap between the rumen wall and abdominal wall will greatly reduce transmitted sounds. There are two independent reticuloruminal contraction sequences: a primary biphasic contraction cycle of the reticulum followed by rumen contractions, which occurs approximately once a minute and mixes ingesta and forces small particles into the omasum; and a secondary contraction that does not involve the reticulum but rumen activity pushes the gas cap into the cardia region, with resultant eructation. Typically, one secondary cycle follows two primary cycles so that three cycles occur every two minutes.
Abdomenocentesis:
Peritoneal fluid samples can be collected from a midline site immediately caudal to the xiphisternum.Peritoneal fluid should be collected into tubes containing EDTA. Normal peritoneal fluid has a clear, slightly yellow appearance, a protein concentration of 10–30 g/l and a white cell concentration, comprised mainly of lymphocytes, of1 × 106/l. Infectious peritonitis typically results in a turbid sample with a high protein concentration and a high white cell concentration comprised mainly of neutrophils.
BLOAT: Ulike cattle, not common in sheep unless secondary to esophageal obstruction. Abdomen distended due to free gas accumulation which causes pressure on diaphragm that later leads to respiratory distress. froth results from the ingestion of legumes, and concentrates.
DDx: hypocalcemia, abdomen distension due to urolithiasis, ascities, peritonitis.
Rx: Anti foaming agents like oil oil, liq parrafin. inj novasul to increase rumen motility, trocarization
REDGUT: lower gut torsion of intestine or caecum around the root of the mesentery, it leads to toxemia and respiratory failure. Sudden death without premonitory signs
**Differential diagnoses: **
• Clostridial disease, typically pulpy kidney disease, black disease or struck.
• Bloat.
• Acute/subacute fasciolosis.
• Acute copper toxicity.
**Abomasal bloat: **common in orphan lambs. Abomasal bloat is caused by the sudden fermentation of large amounts of carbohydrate, with gas production that cannot readily escape from the abomasum. vocalization, tail swishing and kicking at the abdomen. Lambs have a painful expression and a wet lower jaw due to drooling saliva.
INTESTINAL ATRESIA:
Lambs with atresia ani are perfectly healthy for the first
24–36 hours after birth. Thereafter, there is increasing
abdominal distension, reluctance to suck, salivation,
depression and long periods spent in sternal recumbency
Treatment
Correction of atresia ani is most easily achieved by a
‘X-shaped’ stab incision in the skin bulge using a
scalpel blade. This is a painful procedure and must
only be undertaken after sacrococcygeal lidocaine
injection (0.2 ml of 2% solution), which is a simple
technique using a 21 gauge 12 mm needle (257). On
incision, up to 100 ml of mucus-containing meconium
is released (258) under variable pressure.
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum is a coccidian parasite that has been recognized as a significant cause of diarrhoea in young ruminants only over the past 20 years or so. Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease and it has
Aetiology
Infection is by the faeco-oral route. Adult sheep may become asymptomatic carriers and shed small numbers of oocysts during stressful periods such as around parturition. Diarrhoea in lambs is caused by the physical loss of villous absorptive area and it exacerbates concurrent gut infections such as rotavirus. Cryptosporidia do not require faecal excretion for sporulation to infective stages and they can invade other villous cells without leaving the intestine. This autoinfection can cause severe disease.
the usual recommendations are ~1 gal. (3.8 L) of water/day for ewes on dry feed in winter, 1½ gal./day for ewes nursing lambs, and ½ gal./day for finishing lambs
Energy: determine body condition, The energy requirement of ewes is greatest during the first 8–10 wk of lactation. Because milk production declines after this period and the lambs have begun foraging, the requirement of the ewe is then reduced to prelambing levels. The easiest way to assess energy adequacy in sheep is to perform and record body condition using an objective 1–5 scoring system, with 1 being extremely thin and 5 being extremely obese.
The body condition score is determined by palpating the amount of fat covering on the spinous processes and transverse processes in the lumbar region. Most healthy productive ewes will have a score of 2–3.5. Sheep with a score of 1–2 should be examined and fed to attain a higher score, whereas those with a score >3.5 should be fed less. Dietary changes should be done slowly, and abrupt reduction in total energy intake should always be avoided, particularly in middle to late gestation.
Protein:
Good-quality forage and pasture generally provide adequate protein for mature sheep. However, sheep do not digest poor-quality protein as efficiently as do cattle, and there are instances when a protein supplement should be fed with mature grass and hay, or when on winter range. Therefore, a minimum of 7% dietary crude protein is needed for maintenance in most sheep. Protein requirements depend on the stage of production (growth, gestation, lactation, etc) and the presence of certain diseases (internal nematode parasites, dental disease, etc). If available forages are unable to supply adequate dietary crude protein, protein supplements, such as oilseed meals (cottonseed meal, soybean meal) or commercially blended supplements should be fed to meet nutrient requirements. Protein should be fed to meet, but not exceed, requirements. Excess protein feeding can be beneficial in cases of excessive internal parasite burdens but result in increased production costs and may result in higher incidences of diseases (eg, heat stress, pizzle rot).
Sheep can convert nonprotein nitrogen (such as urea, ammonium phosphate, and biuret) into protein in the rumen but possibly less efficiently than beef cattle. This source of nitrogen can provide at least a part of the necessary supplemental nitrogen in high-energy diets with a nitrogen:sulfur ratio of 10:1. In lamb-finishing diets, the inclusion of alfalfa, approved growth stimulants, and a source of fermentable carbohydrates (eg, ground corn, ground milo) enhance nitrogen utilization.
Minerals:
Sheep require the major minerals sodium, chlorine, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, potassium, and trace minerals, including cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, and selenium. Trace mineralized salt provides an economical way to prevent deficiencies
sheep should be provided with ad lib salt (sodium chloride) (avoid where soil is alkaline). Mature sheep will consume ~0.02 lb (9 g) of salt daily, and lambs half this amount. Range operators commonly provide 0.5–0.75 lb (225–350 g) of salt/ewe/mo. Salt as 0.2%–0.5% of the dietary dry matter is usually adequate.
Calcium and Phosphorus:
In plants, generally the leafy parts are relatively high in calcium and low in phosphorus, whereas the reverse is true of the seeds. Legumes, in general, have a higher calcium content than grasses. As grasses mature, phosphorus is transferred to the seed (grain).
when corn silage or other feeds from the cereal grains are fed exclusively, ground limestone should be fed daily at the rate of 0.02–0.03 lb (9–14 g).
Sheep seem to be able to tolerate wide calcium:phosphorus ratios as long as their diets contain more calcium than phosphorus. However, an excess of phosphorus may be conducive to development of urinary calculi or osteodystrophy. A calcium:phosphorus ratio of 1.5:1 is appropriate for feedlot lambs. For pregnant ewes, the diet should contain ≥0.18% and, for lactating ewes, ≥0.27%. A content of 0.2%–0.4% calcium is considered adequate, as long as the ratio is maintained between 1:1 and 2:1.
Iodine:
Occasionally, the iodine requirements of sheep are not met in the natural diet and thus iodine supplements must be fed..The young of iodine-deficient ewes may be aborted, stillborn, or born with goiters. Diets containing iodine at 0.2%–0.8% ppm are usually sufficient, depending on the animals’ level of production (maintenance/growth, lactation, etc).
Cobalt:
Sheep require ~0.1 ppm of cobalt in their diet.Because cobalt levels of the feedstuffs are seldom known, a good practice is to feed trace mineralized salt that contains cobalt.
Sheep diets usually contain an ample supply of vitamins A (provitamin A), D, and E. Under certain circumstances, however, supplements may be needed. The B vitamins and vitamin K are synthesized by the rumen microorganisms and, under practical conditions, supplements are unnecessary. However, polioencephalomalacia can be seen and is due to aberrations in ruminal thiamine metabolism, secondary to altered ruminal pH and/or microflora content. Vitamin C is synthesized in the tissues of sheep. On diets rich in carotene, such as high-quality pasture or green hays, sheep can store large quantities of vitamin A in the liver, often sufficient to meet their requirements for as long as 6 mo.
Vitamin D2 is derived from sun-cured forage, and vitamin D3 from exposure of the skin to ultraviolet light. When exposure of the skin to sunshine is reduced by prolonged cloudy weather or confinement rearing, and when the vitamin D2 content of the diet is low, the amount supplied may be inadequate. The requirement for vitamin D is increased when the amounts of either calcium or phosphorus in the diet are low or when the ratio between them is wide. But such dietary modification should be done cautiously, because vitamin D toxicity is a severe syndrome. Fast-growing lambs kept in sheds away from direct sunlight or maintained on green feeds (high carotene) during the winter months (low irradiation) may have impaired bone formation and show other signs of vitamin D deficiency. Normally, sheep on pasture seldom need vitamin D supplements.
The major sources of vitamin E in the natural diet of sheep are green feeds and the germ of seeds. Because vitamin E is poorly stored in the body, a daily intake is needed. When ewes are being fed poor-quality hay or forage, supplemental vitamin E may result in improved production, lamb weaning weights, and colostrum quality. Vitamin E deficiency in young lambs may contribute to nutritional muscular dystrophy if selenium intake is low.
